X-ray surface analysis and measurement apparatus

ABSTRACT

This disclosure presents systems for x-ray diffraction/scattering measurements that have x-ray flux and x-ray flux density several orders of magnitude greater than existing x-ray technologies. These may therefore be useful for applications such as structural analysis and crystallography. 
     The higher brightness is achieved in part by using designs for x-ray targets that comprise a number of microstructures of one or more selected x-ray generating materials fabricated in close thermal contact with a substrate having high thermal conductivity. This allows for bombardment of the targets with higher electron density or higher energy electrons, which leads to greater x-ray brightness and therefore greater x-ray flux. 
     The high brightness/high flux source may then be coupled to an x-ray reflecting optical system, which can focus the high flux x-rays to a spots that can be as small as one micron, leading to high flux density.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/634,834, entitled X-RAY SURFACE ANALYSIS ANDMEASUREMENT APPARATUS and filed Mar. 1, 2015, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety, and which claimed the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/946,475 and 61/946,527, bothfiled on Feb. 28, 2014; 62/008,856, filed Jun. 6, 2014; 62/086,132,filed Dec. 1, 2014, and 62/117,062, filed Feb. 17, 2015, all of whichare also incorporated herein by reference in their entirety; and furtherclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.62/127,781, entitled X-RAY DIFFRACTION AND SMALL ANGLE SCATTERINGAPPARATUS USING A LINEAR ACCUMULATION X-RAY SOURCE filed Mar. 3, 2015,and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/195,746 filed on Jul. 22,2015, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present Application presents an x-ray analysis and measurementapparatus for analysis, quantification of chemical composition,structural determination, measurements and metrology of a specimen witha flat surface or for specimens such as fine particles or liquid thatare deposited on a flat surface of a substrate. The x-ray techniques mayinclude x-ray diffraction (XRD), grazing incidence x-ray diffraction(GIXRD), grazing incidence diffraction (GID), grazing incidence x-raysmall angle scattering (GISAXS), total reflection x-ray fluorescenceanalysis (TXRF), and x-ray reflectivity (XRR), singularly or incombination.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

X-ray diffraction (XRD), grazing incidence x-ray diffraction (GIXRD),grazing incidence diffraction (GID), grazing incidence small angle x-rayscattering (GISAXS), total reflection x-ray analysis (TXRF) and x-rayreflectometry (XRR) are well-established x-ray surface analysis andmeasurement techniques [see, for example, R. Klockenkamper and A. vonBohlen, Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Analysis and Related Methods2nd Ed. (J. Wiley and Sons, 2015); R. Fernandez-Ruiz, “TXRF Spectrometryas a Powerful Tool for the Study of Metallic Traces in BiologicalSystems” Development in Analytical Chemistry Vol. 1 2014; R. E.Dinnebier and S. J. L. Billinge, “Chapter 2: Experimental Setups”, inPowder Diffraction: Theory and Practice (Royal Society of ChemistryPublishing, London, UK, 2008); M. Birkholz, “Chapter 4: GrazingIncidence Configurations”, in Thin Film Analysis by X-ray Scattering(Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, 2005); J. LevineParrill et al., in “GISAXS—Glancing Incidence Small Angle X-rayScattering,” Journal de Physique IV vol. 3 (December, 1993), pp.411-417; and G. Renaud et al., “Probing surface and interface morphologywith Grazing Incidence Small Angle X-ray Scattering” Surface ScienceReports vol. 64:8 (2009), pp. 255-380]. The grazing incidence techniquesutilize an x-ray beam incident upon a specimen with an incidence anglesmaller than the critical angle for total reflection of the surfacematerial at the incident x-ray energy. Under this condition, theincident x-rays penetrate only a short distance into the surface,typically less than 20 nm, resulting in the surface sensitivity of thetechniques.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is useful for crystalline structuraldetermination of a specimen by measuring diffraction patterns resultingfrom an x-ray beam impinging on the specimen. This is a common techniqueto determine crystal structures of compounds and materials.

GIXRD is useful for crystalline structural determination of a thinsurface layer of a specimen with a flat surface by measuring diffractionpatterns resulting from an x-ray beam incident on the specimen at agrazing incidence angle. This is typically used with flat surfaces. GIDrecords the diffraction pattern at a grazing exit angle.

GISAXS is useful to characterize structures (typically with dimensionson a namometer scale) of a thin surface layer of a specimen as well asinner electron density fluctuations of the deposited material bymeasuring the scattering signal that results from an x-ray beam ofgrazing incidence.

TXRF provides highly sensitive chemical composition and concentrationanalysis and quantification of a thin surface layer (<20 nm) of aspecimen with a flat surface or a specimen (e.g. liquid or fineparticles) on top of an optically flat substrate by measuring the x-raysproduced by the specimen under x-ray excitation. It may also be used todetermine the thickness of a thin film on top of an optically flatsubstrate.

XRR measures the intensity of x-rays undergoing specular reflection froma surface at various angles of incidence to obtain density, thickness,and roughness profiles of surface layers and thin films.

For scientific studies of materials that need high brightness x-rays,high brightness synchrotrons or free-electron lasers have been used withgreat success. However, these facilities are large, often occupyingacres of land, and expensive to operate, and obtaining beamtime can takemonths of waiting. They are impractical for conventional laboratory use.

Until now, the laboratory application of the grazing incidence x-raytechniques described above have relied on conventional laboratory x-raysources that use an extended solid metal anode (such as copper) and haverelatively low brightness and limited choice of x-ray spectra of theincident x-ray beam. This is due to the limitation of using x-ray targetanode materials with suitable thermal, mechanical, and chemicalproperties to ensure continuous operation of the x-ray target, typicallypreventing the anode target from melting, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,249,216 and 5,659,969, 7,551,719, and 7,680,243, whose disclosures areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,929,667, also incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety, describes the use of an x-ray source using a liquid metal jetanode to circumvent the thermal limitations of conventional x-raysources for x-ray metrology applications. However, to achieve thedesired benefit, the metal jet needs to be in liquid form and havesufficiently high speed and low vapor pressure, among other challengingrequirements. The major limitation of this type of x-ray source is thatonly an extremely limited number of metals are in liquid form atreasonable temperatures, i.e., below 200 centigrade. Consequently, thechoice of x-ray characteristic lines for monochromatic x-ray beamillumination is extremely limited.

To make substantial performance improvements to grazing incidence x-raytechniques, singularly or in combination, there is need of an x-rayapparatus comprising a high brightness laboratory x-ray source,preferably providing flexibility in choice of anode material to producea range of x-ray energies. Additionally, among these techniques, thereis also continued demand for reducing (improving) absolute and/orrelative trace element detection limit in liquids and solutions,especially for low atomic number elements (e.g. boron (B), carbon (C),oxygen (O), fluorine (F), sodium (Na), aluminum (Al), and sulfur (S)),improving throughput, quantitative elemental composition analysisaccuracy, higher spatial resolution for small spot analysis ormapping/imaging of elemental composition as well as higher sensitivityand performance in determining crystallographic phases and/or texture,measurement of thin film thickness, semiconductor metrology, andmeasurement of impurities and contamination on silicon surfaces insemiconductor manufacturing.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention discloses an x-ray surface analysis andcharacterization apparatus that comprises an x-ray source using thelinear accumulation of x-rays that provides high x-ray brightness and awide choice of x-ray energy. The linear accumulation x-ray sourcecompromises two or more sub-sources of x-rays, with each sub-sourcehaving predetermined x-ray spectral characteristics, with thesub-sources separated physically from each other by predeterminedspatial intervals and aligned with each other along a predetermined axisto allow accumulation of x-rays along that axis, thereby increasingbrightness. The x-ray sub-sources produce x-rays by electron bombardmentof a target, and the linear accumulation of x-rays from the multipleorigins leads to greater x-ray brightness.

In some embodiments, the x-ray sub-sources may be a singlemicrostructure, or comprise of one or more embeddedmulti-microstructures, each of which comprise an x-ray generatingmaterial selected for x-ray generating properties, such as spectralcharacteristic and x-ray production efficiency. The microstructures ofx-ray generating material may have at least one dimension less than 10micrometers, embedded in a substrate of low Z material with high thermalconductivity.

A significant advantage to some embodiments is that the high x-raybrightness from the linearly accumulating source results in greatlyimproved throughput and higher sensitivity for the above mentionedgrazing incidence x-ray techniques, which is particularly important forindustrial applications such as semiconductor metrology. Furthermore,the higher brightness combined with a wider range of characteristicx-rays can extend the analytical performance capabilities of XRR, TXRF,GIXRD, GID, and GISAXS.

Some embodiments additionally comprise an x-ray optical train that isconfigured to collect and collimate or focus x-rays along thepredetermined axis to produce an x-ray beam with predetermined beamproperties, such as the beam profile, intensity cross section, orangular composition, as well as predetermined spectral properties. Insome embodiments, the x-ray optical train comprises at least one x-raymirror optic with an axially symmetric reflecting surface of apredetermined surface profile, selected from paraboloids, ellipsoids, ortype I Wolter optics. Additionally, it may include one or more spectralfilter(s) or monochromator(s) to narrow the spectral band of the x-raybeam. Furthermore, some embodiments comprise at least one absorbingx-ray collimator, such as an aperture or slit, to collimate the angularconvergence of the x-ray beam or the incident x-ray spot upon thespecimen. The x-ray optic is positioned such that the x-ray beam isdirected to be incident at a grazing angle upon the flat surface of aspecimen to be analyzed.

Additional advantages may be provided in some embodiments of theinvention by using an axially symmetric x-ray optic with a largenumerical aperture, producing a higher brightness x-ray beam incidentupon the specimen. Additional advantages may be provided in someembodiments of the invention by using optics of small point spreadfunction and using a flat crystal monochromators within the opticaltrain to provide higher spatial resolution and analytical sensitivity.

At least one detector receives x-rays from the specimen in response tothe interaction of the incident x-ray beam with the specimen, andproduces signals indicative of properties of the specimen. The x-raysignals from the specimen might include diffracted, scattered, andreflected x-rays. An electromechanical system controls the source, thecomponents of the optical train, positioning the specimen with respectto the incident x-ray beam, and the detector, acquires data, anddetermines the properties of the specimen based on the x-ray signals atleast in part, singularly or in combination.

In various embodiments, the x-ray surface analysis and measurementapparatus is configured to perform TXRF, XRR, GIXRD, GID, and GISAXS,singularly, sequentially, or simultaneously in combination of a subsetor all of the above techniques. Example applications include analysis ofmaterial contamination of semiconductor wafers, elemental compositionanalysis and thin film thickness measurement during semiconductor devicemanufacturing processes, such as dielectric materials, copper diffusionbarriers, composition analysis and size and size distributioncharacterization of nanoparticles deposited on a flat surface, traceelement detection and analysis in solutions and solid (with digestion)in forensics, pharmaceuticals, food, environmental samples, andbiological tissue.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A schematically illustrates a surface x-ray analysis andmeasurement apparatus using a linear accumulation x-ray source accordingto the invention.

FIG. 1B schematically presents details of the x-ray interaction with thespecimen for the system illustrated in FIG. 1A.

FIG. 2A schematically illustrates details for an embodiment of theinvention in which x-ray optics are used to collect the x-raysdiffracted/scattered from the specimen.

FIG. 2B schematically illustrates details for an embodiment of theinvention in which a relatively small x-ray detector is allowed to movealong a track.

FIG. 2C schematically illustrates details for an embodiment of theinvention in which a relatively large x-ray detector is allowed to movealong a track.

FIG. 3 schematically illustrates details for an embodiment of theinvention in which x-rays are diffracted/scattered from the specimen anddetected in transmission mode.

FIG. 4 schematically illustrates one embodiment of a linear accumulationx-ray source comprising sub-sources as used in some embodiments of theinvention.

FIG. 5 schematically illustrates one embodiment of a linear accumulationx-ray source comprising a monolithic x-ray source as used in someembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 6 schematically illustrates a linear accumulation x-ray source asused in some embodiments of the invention in which multiple sub-sourcesare embedded in a substrate with a recessed shelf.

FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a cross section of a two-sided linearaccumulation x-ray source as used in some embodiments of the invention

FIG. 8 schematically illustrates a cross section of a two-sided linearaccumulation x-ray source having an anode comprising discretemicrostructures embedded or buried in a substrate as used in someembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 9 schematically illustrates a linear accumulation x-ray sourcecomprising optics between sub-sources as used in some embodiments of theinvention

FIG. 10 illustrates a cross section of a paraboloidal optical element.

FIG. 11 illustrates a cross section of a Wolter Type I optical element.

FIG. 12 illustrates a cross section of an ellipsoidal optical element.

FIG. 13 illustrates a cross section of an x-ray source with linearaccumulation and two symmetric parabolic optics as used in someembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 14 illustrates a cross section of an x-ray source with linearaccumulation two symmetric Wolter type I optics as used in someembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 15A illustrates a side view cross-sections of a portion of anembodiment of the invention using collimating apertures or slits.

FIG. 15B illustrates top view cross-sections of a portion of anembodiment of the invention using collimating apertures or slits.

FIG. 15C illustrates a schematic end view of the x-rays for theembodiment illustrated in FIGS. 15A and 15B.

FIG. 16 illustrates a perspective view of a portion of an embodiment ofthe invention with a linear accumulation source and an optical train.

FIG. 17 illustrates a cross-section of a portion of an embodiment of theinvention having a double crystal monochromator.

FIG. 18 illustrates a schematic perspective view of a portion of anembodiment of the invention having a rotating anode target.

Note: The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in andconstitute a part of the specification, illustrate exemplaryembodiments, features, and aspects of the invention and, together withthe description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. Thedrawings are not necessarily to scale; emphasis has instead been placedupon illustrating the principles of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

For all of the surface x-ray techniques mentioned above, the x-ray fluxF of the x-ray beam incident on the specimen surface is an importantparameter and is equal to the product of the x-ray beam brightness B_(s)at the specimen (defined as number of x-rays per unit area and per unitsolid angle illuminating the specimen), the cross sectional area A′ ofthe incident beam at the sample point, and the convergence angles: Δθ inthe scattering plane which contains incident and reflected x-ray beam,and ω in the out-plane which is perpendicular to the reflection plane:

F=B _(s) A′Δθ*ω  [Eqn. 1]

The x-ray beam brightness B_(s) at the specimen is typically smallerthan the x-ray source brightness (B) because the inherent low focusingefficiency and aberrations of the x-ray optical train lead to blurringand therefore an increase in the effective x-ray source size. B_(s) andB are approximately related by:

$\begin{matrix}{B_{s} = {B\; \rho \frac{s^{2}}{s^{2} + \left\lbrack {M\; {\delta/\left( {M + 1} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 2} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where ρ is the total focusing efficiency of the all the opticalcomponents of the x-ray optical train from the source to the specimen, sis the diameter of the source size (assumed to be of a circular shape),δ the full width half maximum (FWHM) of the point spread function (PSF)of the x-ray optical train, and M the image magnification of the x-rayoptical train. Note that M is equal to infinity when the source islocated at a focus of the x-ray optical train.

Eqns. 1 and 2 show that for given incident beam cross sectional area A′and beam angular convergence Δθ, to increase F, it is desirable to havea high brightness x-ray source B, an x-ray optical train with highefficiency p, and a FWHM of the PSF optical train δ smaller than thesource size s, and a large out-of-plane angle ω which is enabled byusing an optic that has a large solid angle of collection along theout-of-plane direction.

Various embodiments of the present invention obtain a large F byincreasing B with a bright linear accumulation x-ray source, and enablelarge B_(s), ρ, and ω values with a high performance x-ray optical traincomprising an x-ray mirror optic. The value of Δθ must be constrained tobe what is suitable for the grazing incidence surface x-ray techniques(less than the critical angle of reflection of the specimen or substrateat the incident x-ray energy of interest) and can be achieved by usingadditional x-ray aperture(s) or slit(s). The maximum value of Δθ is setto be less than the critical angle of reflection of the substrate at thex-ray energy of the incident x-ray beam, which is inversely proportionalto the x-ray energy E and the square root of the mass density of thespecimen or substrate, which are well-known values, some of which may befound through websites and references such as the X-ray OpticsCalculator at [www.ipmt-hpm.ac.ru/xcalc/xcalc/ref_index.php].

By using a two dimensional X-Y Cartesian coordinate system in thespecimen surface, with the X axis defined as being parallel to the x-raybeam and the scattering plane (containing the incident and reflectedx-ray beam axis) and the Y axis perpendicular to the X axis, the areaA=A′/sin(θ) of the beam footprint on the specimen placed at the focus ofthe focused x-ray beam can be expressed by:

$\begin{matrix}{A = {L_{y}\frac{L_{x}}{\sin \; \theta}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 3} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where L_(x) and L_(y) are the cross sectional beam size in the X and Ydirections, respectively, and θ the mean grazing incidence angle.

L_(x) and L_(y) are in turn given by

$\begin{matrix}{L_{i} = \sqrt{\left( \frac{{MS}_{i}}{M + 1} \right)^{2} + \delta^{2}}} & \left\lbrack {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 4} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where i may correspond to either X or Y, M is the magnification of thex-ray optical train, S_(i) the full width half maximum (FWHM) size ofthe linear accumulation x-ray source in the respective direction, and δthe full width half maximum (FWHM) of the point spread function (PSF) ofthe x-ray optical train.

For many applications, a small area A is required to obtain small spotanalysis or perform high resolution spatial mapping over a large area,such as mapping surface contaminants over a wafer in semiconductormanufacturing. Various embodiments of the present invention obtains asmall A by using a linear accumulation x-ray source with a small sourcesize S_(i), an x-ray optical train with a small FWHM point spreadfunction δ, and/or a small magnification factor M.

Additionally, in some embodiments it is preferred to use x-rays of lowerincident x-ray energies, as it can increase the critical angle θ andthus the convergence angles Δθ and ω to obtain a small footprintdimension A on the specimen in the scattering plane (due to the 1/sin(θ)factor) and to increase F. Moreover, the x-ray optical trains disclosedin embodiments of the present invention typically have higher solidangle of collection for low energy x-rays than higher energy x-rays.

For most embodiments, it is preferred to achieve a combination of alarge F and a small A in order to obtain low (better) absolute detectionsensitivity.

X-Ray System.

FIG. 1A schematically illustrates one exemplary embodiment of theinvention. The system comprises an x-ray source apparatus 80 thatcomprises an x-ray generator 08 that produces x-rays 888 with highbrightness and a variety of x-ray energy spectra, an x-ray optical train840 that collects a portion of x-rays 888 from the source and producesan x-ray beam 887 collimated in the scattering plane (as shown) to beincident at an angle on the specimen 240 to be investigated, and avariety of x-ray data collection systems, discussed further below.

The x-ray generator 08 comprises a vacuum environment (typically 10⁻⁶torr or better) commonly maintained by a sealed vacuum chamber 20 orusing active pumping, and manufactured with sealed electrical leads 21and 22 that pass from the negative and positive terminals of a highvoltage source 10 outside the vacuum chamber 20 to the various elementsinside the vacuum chamber 20. The x-ray source 80 will typicallycomprise mounts 30 which secure elements of the x-ray generator 08 suchas the vacuum chamber 20 to a housing 50, and the housing 50 mayadditionally comprise shielding material, such as lead, to preventx-rays from being radiated by the source apparatus 80 in unwanteddirections. Inside the vacuum chamber 20, an emitter 11 connectedthrough the lead 21 to the negative terminal of a high voltage source10, which serves as a cathode and generates a beam of electrons 111,often by running a current through a filament. Any number of prior arttechniques for electron beam generation may be used for the embodimentsof the invention disclosed herein.

A target 1100 comprising a target substrate 1000 and regions of x-raygenerating material (shown in FIG. 1A as a set of embeddedmicrostructures 700) is electrically connected to the opposite highvoltage lead 22 and target support 32 to be at ground or positivevoltage relative to the electron emitter 11, thus serving as an anode.The electrons 111 accelerate towards the target 1100 and collide with itat high energy, with the energy of the electrons determined by themagnitude of the accelerating voltage. The collision of the electrons111 into the target 1100 induces several effects, including the emissionof x-rays 888, some of which exit the vacuum chamber 20 and aretransmitted through a window 40 that is transparent to x-rays.

The target 1100, as will be further described below, is configured tohave multiple sub-sources of x-rays generated from points that aregenerally aligned with each other such that they produce x-rays that mayhave linear accumulation, leading to higher brightness. Microstructuredtargets such as those that may be used in embodiments of the inventiondisclosed herein have been described in detail in the co-pending USpatent application entitled STRUCTURED TARGETS FOR X-RAY GENERATION(U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/465,816, filed Aug. 21, 2014),which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, along withthe provisional applications to which it claims benefit. Furthermore,sources using these targets that have a linear accumulation of x-raysources as are described more fully in the co-pending U.S. patentapplication entitled X-RAY SOURCES USING LINEAR ACCUMULATION by theinventors of the present invention (U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/490,672 filed Sep. 19, 2014), which is also hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety, along with the provisional applications towhich it claims benefit. Any of the target and source designs andconfigurations disclosed in the above referenced co-pending Applicationsmay be considered as alternative components and designs in any or all ofthe embodiments of the x-ray measurement systems according to theinvention disclosed herein.

In some embodiments of the invention, there may also be an electroncontrol mechanism 70 such as an electrostatic lens system or othersystem of electron optics that is controlled and coordinated with theelectron dose and voltage provided by the emitter 11 by a controller10-1 through a lead 27. The electron beam 111 may therefore be scanned,focused, de-focused, or otherwise directed onto a target 1100 comprisingone or more microstructures 700 fabricated to be in close thermalcontact with the substrate 1000. In addition to providing one or moreelectron beam(s) with predetermined properties (e.g. electron energy,current, and focal spot size), such a control mechanism 70 may alsodirect the respective electron beams to its desired position on one ormore x-ray target(s) to generate x-rays at the positions of sub-sourcesalong a predetermined direction.

The system will typically comprise an optical train 840 to collect thex-rays from the source and direct them towards the specimen 240 to beinvestigated. The combined x-ray source apparatus 80 and optical train840 may be considered together to be an x-ray illuminator 800. The x-raybeam 887 may be adjusted to be a beam of varying properties depending onthe specific measurement desired, but for x-ray diffractionmeasurements, and in particular grazing-incidence angle small anglex-ray scattering, the x-ray beam 887 will generally be formed to be acollimated beam. The specimen 240 is typically held in a mount 244,which may have motion controls for x-, y- and z-translation, along withcontrols for rotation about these and axes as well.

The data collection system may comprise an x-ray detector orspectrometer 2900-D that collects reflected x-rays 2887 as well asscattered or diffracted x-rays 2888 resulting from the interaction ofthe incident x-ray beam 887 with the specimen 240. Depending on themeasurement technique being employed, the spectrometer 2900-D maycomprise x-ray optical elements and sensors designed to detect x-rayintensity and discriminate between x-ray energies. It may also in someembodiments be an x-ray detecting array designed to determine positiondependent intensity for the x-rays emerging from the specimen 240.

The spectrometer 2900-D may comprise a photon counter, an energydispersive detector such as a silicon drift detector or Si(Li) detectorthat can discriminate between the energies of the x-ray photonsdetected, a wavelength dispersive spectrometer, a micro-calorimeter, oran apparatus that comprises of a combination of one or more crystal ormultilayer spectrometers and detectors to generate an electronic signalrepresenting the number of counts for the x-rays at various energies, orsome other set of elements that converts x-ray intensity into anelectronic signal. The detector 2900-D may also be an array x-raydetector that converts spatially dependent x-ray intensity to anelectronic signal, including linear detectors, position-sensitive arraydetectors, pin diodes, proportional counters, spectrometers, etc.

These electronic signals may be further processed by signal processingelectronics 292 and passed to an analysis system 295 and presented tothe user using a display 298. The specimen 240 may be mounted in aholder 244. Such a specimen holder 244 may be a simple tray, or comprisea complex mount, having controls 246 for translation of the specimen inx, y and z directions, and may also include x-, y-, and/or z-axisrotation mechanisms, such as a goniometer.

Other detector geometries and arrangements may be known to those skilledin the art. For more on x-ray detectors, see Albert C. Thompson, “X-RayDetectors”, Section 4.5 of the X-ray Data Booklet[xdb.lbl.gov/Section4/Sec_4-5.pdf].

FIG. 1B illustrates the interactions of the x-rays and the specimen asshown in FIG. 1A in more detail. The collimated incident x-ray beam 887falls on the specimen at an angle θ relative to the plane of thespecimen. For most materials, the majority of the incident x-rays willbe transmitted through the specimen, resulting in a transmitted x-raybeam 1887. This beam may be absorbed by a beam stop 580. In someembodiments, the detector 2900-D will be placed to detect all the x-raysthat emerge from the specimen, both reflected x-rays 2887 and diffractedor scattered x-rays 2888. In some embodiments, a beam stop 590 may beplaced between the specimen 240 and the detector 2900-D to block thex-rays that are reflected from the specimen, allowing only diffracted orscattered x-rays 2888 (usually much lower in intensity) to fall on thedetector.

FIG. 2A illustrates a portion of another embodiment of the invention, inwhich an additional set of x-ray optical elements 845 is placed betweenthe specimen and an x-ray detector 2900-F. In this embodiment, thediverging diffracted/scattered x-rays 2888 encounter the surface of anx-ray focusing optic in the set of x-ray optical elements 845 and formfocused x-rays 2889 onto the x-ray detector 2900-F, while the reflectedx-rays 2887 encounter a beam stop 588 and are blocked. This may allow asmaller detector to be used.

For embodiments using the configuration of FIG. 2A, the point where theincident x-ray beam 887 falls on the specimen 240 may be designated asthe center of a virtual circle, in which the incident x-ray beam 887makes an angle θ relative to the plane of the specimen. The additionalset of x-ray optics 845 and the detector 2900-F may be positioned asshown to collect diffracted/scattered x-rays emerging from the specimenat an angle of 2θ relative to the incident x-ray beam. In someembodiments, the rotation of the mount 244 holding the specimen 240 iscontrolled to rotate about this point at which the incident x-ray beam887 falls on the specimen 240, thereby varying the angle θ. This isillustrated in FIG. 2B. An x-ray detector 2900-M is then mounted on atrack 2905 that allows motion of the detector 2900-M such that, as theincidence angle θ varies, the angle between the detector 2900-M and theincident x-ray beam 887 is controlled to be 2θ, while the distance fromthe detector 2900-M to the specimen 240 is kept constant. In thismanner, the well known “theta−2 theta” diffraction plots for thespecimen may be obtained.

FIG. 2C illustrates another variation to a “theta−2theta” embodiments,in which the detector is an extended, curved detector 2900-C with anarray of position sensitive x-ray sensors. The detector therefore neednot move along the track 2905 (or need not move as much) as theincidence angle θ changes as long as the x-ray output as a function ofposition in the array has been calibrated to the corresponding angle 20.For such an embodiment, focusing optics or beam blocks may not benecessary, although configurations in which they are also used may alsobe implemented in some embodiments of the invention.

Additional x-ray optical elements may be placed to adjust and adapt theproperties of the incident x-ray beam 887. These additional opticalelements may comprise x-ray optics (preferably axially symmetric grazingincidence x-ray optics), absorbing collimators (pinholes, apertures,slits, etc.), monochromators (e.g. double crystal or channel-cutmonochromators), filters (including foil filters), anti-scatter slitsand pinholes. Such pinholes may include the SCATEX pinhole (Incoatec) orMolemeX Scientific pinholes and slits.

Likewise, additional x-ray optical elements may be placed to adjust andadapt the properties of the diffracted/scattered x-ray beam 2888. Theseadditional optical elements may comprise x-ray optics (preferablyaxially symmetric grazing incidence x-ray optics), absorbing collimators(pinholes, apertures, slits, etc.), monochromators (e.g. double crystalor channel-cut monochromators), filters (including foil filters),anti-scatter slits and pinholes. Such pinholes may include the SCATEXpinhole (Incoatec) or MolemeX Scientific pinholes and slits.

FIG. 3 illustrates details from another embodiment of the invention, inwhich the specimen 240 is probed in transmission mode instead of at agrazing incidence. The x-ray beam 887 impinges on the specimen 240 atnormal incidence or near normal incidence. The transmitted x-rays 1887may be blocked using a beam stop 584, while diffracted x-rays 2898 maybe detected by a detector 2900-D.

The detector may be any position sensitive detector, such as CCDdetectors and other known position sensitive detector arrangements, aswell as those discussed above. WAXS (wide angle x-ray scattering)embodiments are similar to the SAXS embodiments shown, except measuringthe x-rays scattered at wide angles by placing the detector at largerangles or moving the detector larger angles.

In all of these embodiments, the detectors used may be any combinationof detectors capable of position-sensitive measurements. This mayinclude point detection systems that are moved spatially, lineardetectors, or 2D array detectors (e.g. curved area detectors or CCDdetectors). Electromechanical systems may be used to move the detectorsto collect over a wide angular range or to be used at a fixedscattering.

As before, additional x-ray optical elements may be placed to adjust andadapt the properties of the incident x-ray beam 887. These additionaloptical elements may comprise x-ray optics (preferably axially symmetricgrazing incidence x-ray optics), absorbing collimators (pinholes,apertures, slits, etc.), monochromators (e.g. double crystal orchannel-cut monochromators), filters (including foil filters),anti-scatter slits and pinholes. Such pinholes may include the SCATEXpinhole (Incoatec) or MolemeX Scientific pinholes and slits.

In any of the embodiments presented here, the electronic signalsgenerated by the detector may be further processed by signal processingelectronics 292 and passed to an analysis system 295 and presented tothe user using a display 298. In general, the analysis system 295 mayalso function as a controller for the system, directing the motion ofthe stage and the detector to generate the appropriate dataset for thedesired protocol.

X-Ray Source.

FIG. 4 schematically illustrates a portion of a linear accumulationx-ray source as may be used in some embodiments of the present inventionthat provides high x-ray brightness. In most embodiments, the linearaccumulation x-ray source is preferred to have a focal spot of less than1 micron to 300 microns. In this source, six discrete microstructures2701, 2702, 2703, 2704, 2705, 2706 comprising x-ray generating materialsselected for x-ray generating properties are embedded or buried in asubstrate 2000 and configured at or near a recessed edge 2003 of thesubstrate 2000 by a shelf 2002, where the material of the substrate isof low average atomic number, high thermal conductivity and high meltingpoint. The x-ray generating microstructures 2701, 2702, 2703, 2704,2705, 2706 are arranged in a linear array along a predetermined axis3000, and emit x-rays 2888 when bombarded with electrons 111. Along thedirection within an angle ψ of the axis 3000, x-rays generated in thesix sub-sources accumulate and appear to be generated from a singlesub-source. The angle range is approximately limited to smaller value ofD and W divided by total length of the x-ray generating region 6*(l+d).

The thickness of the bar D (along the surface normal of the target) isselected to be between one-third and two-thirds of the depth of theincident electron penetrating into the substrate for optimal thermalperformance, but it can be bigger or smaller. It may also be selected toobtain a desired x-ray source size in that direction which isapproximately equal in combination with selecting sufficiently largeacceleration energy of the incident electron beam as the penetrationdepth of the incident electron beam is approximately proportional to theenergy of the electrons. The width of the bar W is selected to obtain adesired source size in the corresponding direction. Though W≈1.5 D isillustrated in FIG. 4, it could also be substantially smaller or larger,depending on the size of the source spot desired.

In FIG. 4, each of the discrete microstructures 2701, 2702, 2703, 2704,2705, 2706 shown to have equal a length l along the axis 3000. The totallength of all the six discrete microstructures 6l will commonly be setto be ˜2L, where L is the x-ray linear attenuation length of thematerials of the discrete microstructures for the x-ray energy ofinterest, but a value of 0.5L to 4L may be selected. The thickness ofthe substrate material between two adjacent discrete microstructures ismay a value between 0.5l to 3l, optimized by considering the relativethermal conductivity and mass density of the materials of the substrateand the discrete microstructures, and the x-ray linear attenuationlength of the substrate at the x-ray energy of interest, and the desiredconvergence angle ψ.

The selection of the materials of the linear accumulation source targetused in some embodiments is such that the substrate (the first material)is of low Z material with high thermal conductivity, such as diamond orberyllium, and the material of the sub-sources (the second material) areselected for x-ray generating properties such as spectralcharacteristics and x-ray production efficiency and may include (but arenot limited to) copper, molybdenum, and tungsten. In some embodiments,the thermal conductivity of the targets is mainly determined by thethermal conductivity of the substrate material, which allows the use ofx-ray generating materials with lower thermal conductivity otherwise notsuitable as x-ray target materials in a contiguous single materialtarget employed in prior art, such as germanium and lead, consequentlyallow more choice of elements to produce characteristic x-ray lines.

In one embodiment of the linear accumulation x-ray source of the presentinvention, the incident electron beam uniformly illuminates the area ofthe substrate containing the discrete microstructures (as shown in FIG.4). Because electron energy deposition rate in a material isproportional to the mass density, the ratio of the energy deposited inthe substrate between two adjacent discrete microstructures and thediscrete microstructures is approximately equal to the ratio of thetheir mass relative mass density. In some embodiments of the invention,the incident electron beam is spatially modulated so that a largefraction of the electron beam is incident on the discretemicrostructures. This makes efficient use of the incident electronenergy for x-ray production and reduces the electron energy depositionin the substrate and improves thermal dissipation of the discretemicrostructures.

Because each of the discrete microstructures has five faces transferringheat into the substrate, increasing the heat transfer away from thediscrete microstructures 2701-2706 and into the substrate. Asillustrated, the separation between the sub-bars is a distance d≈l,although larger or smaller dimensions may also be used, as discussedabove.

The distance between the edge of the shelf and the edge of the x-raygenerating material p as illustrated is p≈W, but may be selected to beany value, from flush with the edge 2003 (p=0) to as much as 5 mm,depending on the x-ray reabsorption properties of the substrate materialfor the x-ray energy of interest, the relative thermal properties of thematerials of the substrate and the discrete microstructures, and theamount of heat expected to be generated when bombarded with electrons.For example, in some embodiments it may be generally preferred that thex-ray transmission through the edge of the shelf and the edge of thex-ray generating material p as illustrated is greater than 50%. X-raysthat are generated are collected from the side of the anode, mostpreferably at near-zero take-off angles.

Although the microstructures shown in FIG. 4 are of rectangular prismsof equal size, other any number of shapes and sizes can be used toachieve high x-ray source brightness using the linear accumulationdesign principle from plural of sub-sources and the use of the discretemicrostructures embedded or buried in a substrate to improve the thermaldissipation property of the x-ray generating material of eachsub-source, such as cubes, rectangular blocks, regular prisms, rightrectangular prisms, trapezoidal prisms, spheres, ovoids, barrel shapedobjects, cylinders, triangular prisms, pyramids, tetrahedra, or otherparticularly designed shapes, including those with surface textures orstructures that enhance surface area, to best generate x-rays of highbrightness and that also efficiently disperse heat. Furthermore, thex-ray generating material in each of the sub-sources may not be ofsingle uniform material but comprise additional finer structures ofx-ray generating material. FIG. 5 schematically illustrates a portion ofan embodiment of the present invention comprising a singlemicrostructure 2700 instead of the discrete microstructures of FIG. 4.In this illustration, the width W and depth D into the substrate of themicrostructure 2700 are the same as in FIG. 4, while the accumulatedlength L of the microstructure 2700 is equal to 6l. In other words, thevolume of the x-ray generating material in FIGS. 4 and 5 are the same,and similar volume of x-rays may be produced by similar excitation by anelectron beam 111. Similar design considerations on D, W, L, and p forFIG. 4 apply here.

In FIG. 6, a variation of the source target used in some embodiments isshown in which a two-dimensional array of microstructures is embedded ina substrate, and works in a similar principle to the one-dimensionalarray of microstructures described in FIG. 4. Each of themicrostructures 700-R acts as a sub-source of x-rays when bombarded byan electron beam 111. The combination of the high thermal conductivityof the substrate and the small dimension of the discrete microstructuresallows heat to be efficiently drawn out of the x-ray generatingmaterial, in turn allows bombardment of the discrete microstructureswith higher electron density and/or higher energy electrons, which leadsto greater x-ray brightness and flux.

It should also be noted here that, when the word “discretemicrostructure” is used herein, it is specifically referring tomicrostructures comprising x-ray generating material. Likewise, itshould be noted that, although the word “discrete microstructure” isused, x-ray generating structures with dimensions smaller than 1 micron,or even as small as nano-scale dimensions (i.e. greater than 10 nm) mayalso be described by the word “discrete microstructures” as used hereinas long as the properties are consistent with the geometric factors forsub-source size and pitches set forth in the various embodiments.

It should also be noted that here that, when the word “sub-source” isused it may refer to a single discrete microstructure of x-raygenerating material, or an ensemble of smaller microstructures of x-raygenerating materials, illuminated by a single electron beam.

The x-ray generating material used in the target should have goodthermal properties, such as a high melting point and high thermalconductivity, in order to allow higher electron power loading on thesource to increase x-ray production. The x-ray generating materialshould additionally be selected for good x-ray production properties,which includes x-ray production efficiency (proportional to its atomicnumber) and in some cases, it may be desirable to produce a specificspectra of interest, such as a characteristic x-ray spectral line. Forexample, targets are often fabricated using tungsten, with an atomicnumber Z=74, due to its efficient x-ray production and its high thermalconductivity.

Additionally, in FIG. 6, the target 1100-R comprises a substrate 1000-Rwith a recessed shelf 1002-R. This allows the region 1001-R comprisingan array of microstructures 700-R to be positioned flush with, or closeto, a recessed edge 1003-R of the substrate, and emit x-rays at or nearzero angle without being reabsorbed by the substrate 1000-R, yetprovides a more symmetric heat sink for the heat generated when exposedto electrons 111. The two-dimensional array enables a line source whenviewed at a zero degree take-off angle.

FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a portion of an embodiment of thelinear accumulation x-ray source employed in various x-ray sourceembodiments of the present invention that comprises two sub-sources withtargets sharing a common substrate 2230. The substrate may be a firstmaterial of low atomic number, low mass density, high thermalconductivity and high melting point, aligned to increase linearaccumulation of x-rays along an axis 3001 connecting the twosub-sources. In this embodiment, the source will have two electron beams1231 and 1232 that are controlled to bombard the respective x-raygenerating materials 2231 and 2232 coated on the common substrate 2230and generate x-rays 831 and 832, respectively.

The x-ray generating materials are sufficiently thick for efficientgeneration of x-rays of desired spectra but sufficiently thin for hightransmission of the desired x-rays. The underlying principle is that theelectron penetration depth is typically much smaller than the x-raylinear attenuation length, especially for higher energy x-rays. Thethickness of the x-ray generating materials 2231 and 2232 is typicallyselected to be less than or comparable to the depth of the incidentelectron beam penetrating into the x-ray generating materials 2231 and2232, a larger value may be used. If the bombardment occurs at an angleto the surface normal, as illustrated, the angle of incidence can alsoaffect the selection of the coating thickness. Although the tilt of thetargets 2203 and 2204 relative to the electron beams 1231, 1232 and 1222is shown as ˜45°, any angle from 0° to 90° that allows x-rays to begenerated may be used.

The material of the common substrate 2230 is typically selected from amaterial of low Z material with high thermal conductivity, such asdiamond, diamond like material, and beryllium, and silicon carbide. Thethickness of the common substrate is selected to have high x-raytransmission for the x-ray energy of interest, often greater than 50%.The distance between the two sub-sources is generally greater than theincident electron beam size.

It is possible that one or more of the anodes of the sub-sources has avery thin substrate or even zero thickness in the impact region of theelectron beam(s). It is typical that the anodes (with or without thesubstrate) of the sub-sources are supported on a support frame with anopening reasonably larger than the incident electron beam or x-raysource size. The support frame will typically have high thermalconductivity and may be cooled using techniques well known to thoseskilled in the art. In some embodiments, the frame will be cooled to atemperature of minus 90 centigrade when the substrate or the frame ismade of diamond to make use of the increased thermal conductivity ofdiamond with decreasing temperature.

Though the x-ray sub-sources 2231 and 2232 in FIG. 7 are shown asextended targets comprising a layer of single material, in otherembodiments at least one of the single material layer target may bereplaced with a region comprising a plurality of discretemicrostructures of x-ray generating materials embedded or buried in thecommon substrate 2230, such as those illustrated in FIG. 8. In thisfigure, each of the discrete microstructures in the sets ofmicrostructures 2151 and 2152 acts a sub-source x-ray source whenilluminated by an electron beam. When aligned with each other along axes3002-3005, these also produce a higher brightness x-ray beam with anextended beam profile that operates on the same principle the source asillustrated in FIG. 7.

FIG. 9 schematically illustrates yet another embodiment of the linearaccumulation x-ray source employed in various embodiments of the presentinvention that comprises a plurality of sub-sources 2801, 2802, and 2803with x-ray targets fabricated on at least two separate substrates,aligned along a predetermined axis. At least one x-ray imaging optic(2821 or 2831) that collects and image x-rays from one sub-source, forexample, 2886, to another sub-source on, for example, 2885, on adifferent substrate so that x-rays from the two sub-sources appear tooriginate from a single sub-source viewed along the axis, achievinglinear accumulation of x-rays from the two sub-sources to achieve highbrightness. Each of the sub-sources comprises a corresponding electronbeam (1181, 1182, 1183, 1184, 1185, and 1186) and an x-ray targetcontaining an x-ray generating material. The x-ray target may be a layerof the x-ray generating material deposited on its respective substrate,as illustrated, or comprise plural of the discrete microstructuresfabricated in close thermal contact with (such as embedded in or buriedin) with its respective substrate, as was illustrated in FIG. 8.

To preserve the brightness of the sub-sources, the x-ray imaging opticthat collects the generated x-rays is may have a point spread functionless than the effective source size of the two sub-sources, the smallerone if two sub-sources have different source sizes. The focusingefficiency of the x-ray imaging optic 2831 and/or 2832 is may bedesigned to be greater than 50%. Variations of the optics 2831 and/or2832 may include focusing optics illustrated in FIGS. 12, 13, and 14.Characteristics of the substrate may be similar to those presented inFIG. 7.

The anode targets shown in FIGS. 1A through 9 may be cooled usingmethods known in the art, such as water cooling, thermoelectric cooling,and/or heat pipes, which may also be employed to increase the thermalperformance of the anode and thus the brightness of the x-ray source.

A second objective of the invention is to enable x-ray sources thatproduce sufficiently bright characteristic x-rays of desired spectrafrom element(s) whose materials are of poor thermal property, includinglow thermal conductivity, low melting point, or both. In one example,the element is titanium (Ti) and the material is a Ti metal or a Ticompound, whose Kα x-rays have significantly larger fluorescence crosssections for many biologically important elements including phosphorus,sulfur, chlorine, selenium, and low Z elements like oxygen, nitrogen,and fluorine, than those at 8 keV or higher energy x-rays. Despite theneed for characteristic x-rays of several of these elements in TXRFapplications (to increase fluorescence of particular element(s), or tosuppress background signal from x-ray scattering and fluorescence fromthe other element(s) within the specimen or material of the substrate),many elements like Ti have largely excluded them from use inconventional x-ray sources because of inferior thermal property. Thestructured anode design overcomes this limitation.

Any number of prior art techniques for generating electron beam may beused for the embodiments of the linear accumulation x-ray sourcedisclosed herein. Additional known techniques used for electron beamgeneration include heating for thermionic emission, Schottky emission (acombination of heating and field emission), emitters comprisingnanostructures such as carbon nanotubes), and by use of ferroelectricmaterials. [For more on electron emission options for electron beamgeneration, see Shigehiko Yamamoto, “Fundamental physics of vacuumelectron sources”, Reports on Progress in Physics vol. 69, pp. 181-232(2006)]. It is preferred that the size of the electron beam is optimizedaccording to the x-ray source size desired.

Some embodiments use x-ray generating material (the second material)comprised of predetermined characteristic spectral lines to enableoptimal fluorescent x-ray generation for a group of elements of interestor to suppress characteristic fluorescence x-rays from a major matrixelement in the specimen to reduce signal background in TXRF, or optimizescattering cross in GISAXS, or optimize refractive index contrastbetween layers in XRR.

In some embodiments of the invention, there may also be one or moreelectron optical systems that, in addition to providing electron beam(s)with predetermined property (electron energy, current, and focal spotsize), can control and direct the respective electron beams to itsdesired position on the respective x-ray target to incident on therespective x-ray generating material and/or align the sub-sources alonga predetermined direction.

X-Ray Optical Train.

Various embodiments of the x-ray surface analysis and measurementapparatus comprise an x-ray optical train to collect a portion of x-raysfrom the linear accumulation x-ray source, subsequently spectrallyfilter, collimate or focus the x-rays to produce an x-ray beam to beincident on the specimen to be analyzed, depending on the desiredperformance of the x-ray surface analysis and measurement system interms of desired measurement parameters, such as spatial resolution,throughput, and element analysis sensitivity and accuracy. It should benoted that in the variations of optical trains illustrated ascross-sections in the following figures that the optics may be axiallysymmetric and also have either an absorbing beam stop, slit, or aperturethat absorbs X-rays that are not reflected.

In some embodiments, the optics may furthermore be nested (concentricwithin each other) to allow greater collection of x-rays, as is typicalwith the non-axial symmetric mirrors used commonly in x-ray astronomy.Optical trains such as those that may be used in embodiments of theinvention disclosed herein have been described in detail in theco-pending US patent application entitled X-RAY ILLUMINATORS WITH HIGHFLUX AND HIGH FLUX DENSITY (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/544,191,filed Dec. 5, 2014), which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety, along with the provisional Applications to which it claimsbenefit.

To improve the numerical aperture of the optical elements of the opticaltrain, some embodiments of the invention may use coatings on thereflective surface. These coatings are preferably high density materials(greater than 2.5 g/cm³) such as platinum, iridium, or gold and aretypically around a few angstroms to a few nanometers in thickness. Suchhigh density coatings provide a larger critical angle for reflection,enabling the collection of more x-rays. Alternatively, multilayercoatings that reflect x-rays using the with alternating periodic layersof two or more materials, that provide constructive interference inreflection for certain wavelengths. The reflection efficiency depends onthe wavelength and angle of incidence of the x-rays, as well as thethickness of the alternating layers, so this has limited use as abroadband reflector, but may be used if specific wavelengths aredesired. Combinations that may be used for multilayer reflectors may betungsten/carbon (W/C), tungsten/tungsten silicide (W/WSi₂),molybdenum/silicon (Mo/Si), nickel/carbon (Ni/C), chromium/scandium(Cr/Sc), and lanthanum/boron carbide (La/B₄C), and tantalum/silicon(Ta/Si), among others. The surface may also be a compound coatingcomprising an alloy or mixture of several materials.

In some embodiments, the optics may furthermore be nested (concentricwithin each other) to allow greater collection of x-rays, as is typicalwith the non-axial symmetric mirrors used commonly in x-ray astronomy.

FIGS. 10 and 11 schematically illustrate variations of optical traincomponents to produce a collimated high brightness x-ray beam. FIG. 10illustrates a cross-section of an x-ray mirror 3020 of which theinterior reflecting surface is of portion of a paraboloid 3010. It isconfigured that its focus 3050 will be positioned with the center of thelinear accumulation x-ray source and its axis is aligned along the axisof the linear accumulation x-ray source, such as was illustrated by theaxis 3000 in FIG. 4. The x-ray mirror 3020 collects x-rays from thesource and generates a collimated x-ray beam. As the source will not bea perfect point source, the angular convergence of the collimated beamis approximately equal to the apparent linear accumulation x-ray sourcedivided by the distance between the source and the entrance of the x-raymirror 3020. In some embodiments, the angular convergence of thecollimated beam in the scattering plane to be smaller than the criticalangle for total reflection of the specimen. Otherwise, additionalslit(s) may be used in the optical train to obtain the desired angularcollimation in the scattering plane.

The surface profile of the x-ray mirror may be designed such that thex-rays with the desired x-ray energy incident on the x-ray mirrorsurface at a grazing angle smaller than or equal to the critical anglefor total reflection of the mirror surface material at the desired x-rayenergy. The mirror surface material may be glass, or coated either witha high mass density material to increase the critical angle for totalreflection to collect more x-rays from the linear accumulation x-raysource. The mirror surface may also be coated with a multilayer ofappropriate material composition, d-spacing gradient, and appropriated-spacing gradient along the optical axis, to increase solid angle ofx-ray collection from the linear accumulation x-ray source and obtain anx-ray beam with narrow spectra.

FIG. 11 schematically illustrates a cross-section of another opticaltrain that may be used in embodiments of the presentation invention toproduce a collimated high brightness x-ray beam. The optical train inthis example comprises a type I Wolter mirror optic having an ellipsoidand a hyperboloid, both aligned so one of the foci of the ellipse F_(e1)corresponds to one of the foci of the hyperbola F_(h1).

The type I Wolter mirror is typically configured such that the focusF_(h1) will be positioned at the center of the linear accumulation x-raysource and its optical axis is aligned to correspond to the axis of thelinear accumulation x-ray source, such as was illustrated by the axis3000 in FIG. 4. Similar to the parabolic optic of FIG. 10, it ispreferred that the angular convergence of the collimated beam in thescattering plane is smaller than the critical angle of the specimen.

The slopes and surface profiles of the x-ray optics are designed suchthat the x-rays with the desired x-ray energy are incident on the x-raymirror surface at a grazing angles that are smaller than or equal to thecritical angle of the mirror surface material for total at the desiredx-ray energy. The surface material of one or both mirror components maybe glass, or coated either with a high mass density material to increasethe critical angle for total reflection, which is proportional to thesquare root of the density of the material. The mirror surface may alsobe coated with a multilayer of appropriate material composition,d-spacing gradient, and appropriate d-spacing gradient along the opticalaxis, to increase solid angle of x-ray collection from the linearaccumulation x-ray source and obtain an x-ray beam with narrow spectra.Compared with the single paraboloid mirror illustrated in FIG. 10, thetype I Wolter mirror illustrated in FIG. 11 can have up to 4× the solidangle of collection of x-rays from the linear accumulation x-ray source,resulting in a collimated x-ray beam with a larger x-ray flux.

The x-ray optical train illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 may furthercomprises a spectral filtering component to narrow the energy spectra ofthe collimated x-ray known in the prior art, such as a thin foilspectral filter, or multilayer or crystal monochromator. Additionally,it may also compromise aperture(s) or slit(s) to obtain a desired beamshape and size, as will be known by those skilled in the art.

In addition to collimating optics, variations of optics for the opticaltrain of embodiments may use focusing optics such as are shown in FIGS.12, 13, and 14. It should be noted that like the collimating optics, alloptical mirror surface materials may be glass, or coated either with ahigh mass density material. The mirror surface may also be coated with amultilayer of appropriate material composition, d-spacing gradient, andappropriate d-spacing gradient along the optical axis, to increase solidangle of x-ray collection from the linear accumulation x-ray source andobtain an x-ray beam with narrow spectra.

FIG. 12 schematically illustrates an embodiment of the presentationinvention to produce a high brightness focused x-ray beam for increasingx-ray flux density on the specimen, or for small spot analysis ormeasurement spatially resolved mapping with TXRF, DIXRD, and GISAXS, orfor increasing x-ray flux density. The optical train comprises an x-raymirror 3010 of which the reflecting surface corresponds to a portion ofan ellipsoid. It is configured that one of its foci F₁ is positionedwith the center of the linear accumulation x-ray source and its axis isaligned to the axis of the linear accumulation x-ray source, such as wasillustrated by the axis 3000 in FIG. 4). This configuration generates abright, focused x-ray beam. The surface profiles of the x-ray mirrorsare designed such that the x-rays with the desired x-ray energy incidenton the x-ray mirror surface at a grazing angle smaller than or equal tothe critical angle for total reflection of the mirror surface materialat the desired x-ray energy.

FIG. 13 schematically illustrates another focusing optic that may beused in the optical train of some embodiments of the inventioncomprising a first x-ray mirror 3020 of which the reflecting surfacecorresponds to a portion of a paraboloid. It is configured that one ofits focus is positioned with the closest edge of the last of thesub-sources 1700 in the linear accumulation x-ray source 1100 and itsaxis is aligned to the axis 3008 of the linear accumulation x-ray source1100. The x-ray mirror 3020 collects x-rays from the source 1100 andgenerates a collimated x-ray beam 889. A second x-ray mirror 3022, ofwhich the reflecting surface corresponds to a portion of a paraboloid,is aligned with the first x-ray mirror 3020 so that they are symmetricwith their axes are aligned, such that the collimated x-rays 889 arefocused to produce a focused x-ray beam 887. The surface profiles of thex-ray mirrors are designed such that the x-rays with the desired x-rayenergy incident on the x-ray mirror surface at a grazing angle smallerthan or equal to the critical angle for total reflection of the mirrorsurface material at the desired x-ray energy. Compared with the singleellipsoid x-ray mirror illustrated in FIG. 12, the current configurationprovides more x-rays collected from the linear accumulation x-raysource, resulting in a focused x-ray beam with a larger x-ray flux.

Although FIG. 13 shows a second paraboloidal optical element 3022 of thesame size and shape as the initial paraboloidal optical element 3020,these need not be the same dimensions, but may have paraboloid surfaceswith different geometric parameters. By selecting appropriateparameters, the x-ray optical train can be designed to demagnify thex-ray source to produce a small focused x-ray beam on to the specimen ormagnify the x-ray source to produce a large focused beam on to thespecimen.

It should be noted that, although only certain embodiments of a linearaccumulation x-ray source have been illustrated, other embodiments oflinear accumulation x-ray sources can be used as well.

FIG. 14 schematically illustrates another embodiment of the presentationinvention to produce a high brightness focused x-ray beam. The x-rayoptical train comprises two type I Wolter mirrors: the first onecomprising an ellipsoidal mirror 3030 and a hyperboloidal mirror 3040,is configured such that its focus is positioned at the center of thelinear accumulation x-ray source and its optical axis is aligned theaxis 3009 of the linear accumulation x-ray source 1100; and the secondone comprising a hyperboloidal mirror 3042 and an ellipsoidal mirror3032, is aligned such that its optical axis is aligned with that of thefirst Wolter mirror to receive x-rays reflected by the first Woltermirror and produce a bright, focused x-ray beam. This configurationallows more x-rays to be collected from the linear accumulation x-raysource, resulting in a focused x-ray beam with a larger x-ray flux.

Although FIG. 14 shows two Wolter mirrors of the same size and shape,these need not be the same dimensions, but may have different focallengths. By selecting appropriate focal length, the x-ray optical traincan be designed to demagnify the x-ray source to produce a small focusedx-ray beam onto the specimen or magnify the x-ray source to produce alarge focused beam on to the specimen.

Likewise, although only certain embodiments of a linear accumulationx-ray source have been illustrated, other embodiments of the linearaccumulation x-ray sources can be used as well.

In many embodiments, the optical train additionally comprises at leastone absorbing beam collimator, such as a beam stop, aperture, or slit,used in conjunction with one or more of the optical elements aspreviously described. These collimators are typically made usingmaterials that are highly absorbing to the bandwidth of x-ray energiesof interest. This is to meet the requirements of certain embodimentsthat the angular convergence of the focused beam in the scattering planeto be less than the critical angle for total reflection for surfacesensitivity.

FIG. 15A illustrates a cross-section of an optical train taken along thescattering plane, showing a central beam stop 1854 that blocksnon-reflected x-rays passing through the center of the optic 3010.Additionally or alternatively, a collimating slit or aperture 1851 maybe used to remove the unreflected x-rays. Furthermore, a slit 1850 maybe positioned behind the x-ray mirror 3010 and configured to blockportion of the x-rays reflected by the x-ray mirror 3010. The slitopening width is selected to obtain a predetermined angular convergenceof the focused x-ray beam in the scattering plane, which should besmaller than the critical angle for total reflection for a givenexperiment.

FIG. 15B illustrates a top-down view of the optical train of FIG. 15A inthe plane parallel to the specimen surface. FIG. 15C illustrates across-section of the exit of the axially symmetric optic 3310,indicating the region 887 where reflected x-rays are uncollimated andregions 1850 at the top and bottom in which the x-ray are collimated.The opening width of the slit or aperture 1850 that determines theregion 887 is selected to achieve a predetermined angular convergenceangle. In FIG. 15B, the center of the aperture or slit is positioned atthe center of the x-ray mirror 3010 and its long opening is aligned toperpendicular to the scattering plane. In some embodiments, the apertureor slit 1850 may not be positioned at the center and may either be oract as a knife edge, as the primary goal of the aperture or slit 1850 isto set an upper limit of the angular incidence of the x-rays.

Note that although FIG. 15B illustrates an embodiment using anellipsoidal mirror, mirrors with any reflecting surface profile may beused in embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 16 illustrates a perspective view of an x-ray source 1100 withsub-sources 1700 providing x-rays that are aligned to produce an x-raybeam with linear accumulation, along with a focusing optical train 3100comprising a first optical component comprising a collimating Woltertype I mirror with mirror surfaces 3030 and 3040, and a second opticalelement comprising a focusing Wolter type I mirror with a mirrorsurfaces 3042 and 3043. A beam stop 1854 is placed to remove thenon-reflected X-rays. The slit 1850 limits the angle of convergence ofthe focused beam 887 incident upon the specimen.

FIG. 17 schematically illustrate portion of an embodiment of the presentinvention that may be used to obtain a bright, focused x-ray beam with anarrow energy spectrum, comprising a linear accumulation x-ray source1100 generating bright x-rays along a predetermined axis, a firstparaboloidal x-ray mirror 3026 which is properly positioned and alignedwith x-ray source 1100 to collect x-rays from the source 1100 andproduce a collimated x-ray beam 889; a double crystal monochromatorcomprising a first crystal 3054 and second crystal 3056 is configured tomonochromatize the incident x-ray beam 889 to obtain a monochromatizedx-ray beam 889-2 with predetermined x-ray energy, and a secondparaboloidal x-ray mirror 3021 which is configured in reverseorientation with the first paraboloidal x-ray mirror 3026 to receive themonochromatized x-ray beam 889-2 and produce a focused x-ray beam thatis incident on the specimen.

The crystal monochromator may be of any type known to the art, such ascommon U-shaped (channel-cut) crystals comprised of silicon (Si) orgermanium (Ge) single crystal or parallel semiconductor crystal plates.The double crystal monochromator is rotated to change the incidenceangle of the collimated x-ray beam, which enables selection of x-rayenergies of interest by changing angle of diffraction. The surfacematerial of one or both mirror components may be glass, or coated eitherwith a high mass density material to increase the critical angle fortotal reflection to collect more x-rays from the linear accumulationx-ray source. It should be noted that although a second focusing opticis shown, in some embodiments, there is only a single collimating opticand a double crystal monochromator. The monochromated and collimatedbeam is then incident upon the specimen without passing through anadditional optical element.

In various embodiments of the x-ray surface analysis and measurementapparatus, the x-ray optical train may additionally comprise a spectralfilter such as a thin foil made from a material containing a largeatomic fraction of element with an absorption edge slightly above thepredetermined x-ray energy of the x-ray beam, such as a thin nickel (Ni)foil for copper (Cu) Ka characteristic lines.

In various preferred embodiments of the presentation invention, thex-ray optical train has a point spread function that is smaller than orcomparable to the effective source size of the linear accumulation x-raysource to preserve the source brightness.

Alternatively, the x-ray optical train may comprise a doubly curvedcrystal optic (for example, the Doubly-Bent Focusing Crystal Opticproduced by XOS Inc. of Albany, N.Y.). Additionally or alternatively,the x-ray optical train may comprise multiple elements to focus andmonochromatize the beam, such as the combination of a coated cylindricalmirror and a double multilayer monochromator [see, for example, Pianettaet al. “Application of synchrotron radiation to TXRF analysis of metalcontamination on silicon wafer surfaces” Thin Solid Films vol. 373, pp.222-226 (2000)].

The x-ray beam after the x-ray optical train impinges upon a specimen240 (as was illustrated in FIG. 1A) at a grazing angle less than thecritical angle of the substrate at the incident x-ray energy. Thespecimen is optionally placed upon a specimen stage capable of moving inthree orthogonal directions (X, Y, and Z) for locating a single analysisand/or measurement point or for mapping over a large area. Preferably,the stage accommodates large flat planar shapes, such as wafers andother reflective media (e.g. quartz glass for liquid specimens to beprepared as a thin film or for microparticles located upon the flatsubstrate). Optionally, specimen preparation and loading systems knownto the art can be added, including robotic or automated specimen loadingand transfer systems or vapor phase deposition. In some embodiments,additional or alternative electromechanical systems are implemented tomove the source, optical train, and detector either independently orsimultaneously.

Example applications include analysis of material contamination ofsemiconductor wafers, elemental composition analysis and thin filmthickness measurement during semiconductor device manufacturingprocesses, such as dielectric materials, copper diffusion barriers,composition analysis and size and size distribution characterization ofnanoparticles deposited on a flat surface, trace element detection andanalysis in solutions and solid (with digestion and deposition on a flatand smooth surface) in forensics, pharmaceuticals, food, environmentalsamples, nanoparticles, and biological tissue

In various embodiments, the x-ray surface analysis and measurementapparatus is configured to perform XRR, TXRF, GIXRD, GID, and GISAXS,singularly, sequentially, or simultaneously in combination all or asubset of all. The brighter sources and the various embodiments ofoptical train also described herein, as well as in the other co-pendingapplications cited by reference herein, may be combined with any numberof these established techniques, including those cited herein, toproduce a surface analysis and measurement system that is faster, andwith a stronger signal and therefore a better signal/noise ratio, due tothe additional flux of x-rays available from a source using linearaccumulation. Those skilled in the art will recognize that thesecombinations of techniques will, along with the source using linearaccumulation and an optical train that can collect the x-rays sogenerated efficiently, will therefore constitute a new system for use inperforming XRR, TXRF, GIXRD, GID, and/or GISAXS, singularly,sequentially, or simultaneously in combination all or a subset of all.

Various embodiments of the present invention comprises at least onedetector to receive x-rays from the specimen in response to theinteraction of the incident x-ray beam with the specimen, and producessignals indicative of properties of the specimen. The x-ray signals fromthe specimen may include diffracted, scattered, and reflected x-rays.

In various embodiments, when the x-ray surface analysis and measurementapparatus is configured for TXRF, the x-ray detector 2900 as was shownin FIG. 1A may include one or more of various x-ray detectors known inthe art, such as solid state energy dispersive detectors (includinglithium drift silicon detector (Si(Li)), silicon drift detector (SSD)and variants, silicon PIN diodes, microcalorimeters, and wavelengthdispersive spectrometer comprising a wavelength dispersive componentbased on Bragg reflection in combination with any detector capable ofdetecting x-rays. For low energy x-ray detection, a detector with ahighly transmissive window or a windowless detector for low energyx-rays is preferred. Qualitative/quantitative analysis is performedbased on the intensity of the x-rays measured by the spectrometer,specimen preparation, and parameters of the incident x-ray beam.

Data acquisition procedures known to the art are used including aligningthe specimen relative to the incident x-ray beam in position and angle.Data analysis methods known to the art including absolute and relativequantification are used. For example, qualitative/quantitative analysisis performed based on the intensity of the x-rays measured by thespectrometer, specimen preparation, and parameters of the incident x-raybeam. Many analysis examples and specimen preparation techniques havebeen well established and published, including thequalitative/quantitative analysis of a specimen placed on a wafersurface.

In some preferred embodiments, the signal obtained is then analyzed byestablished techniques or software packages similar to common XRF andTXRF analysis packages, such as WinAxil (Canberra University, Australia)or Rigaku TXRF Software (Rigaku Corp., Tokyo, Japan).

In various embodiments, when the surface analysis and measurementapparatus is configured for XRR, GIXRD, GID, and/or GISAXS, the x-raydetector 2900-R of FIG. 1A may include one or more position sensitivearray detectors known in the art, including line and 2D array detectors.Such examples of position-sensitive detectors include photodiodedetectors, scintillator-type and gas-filled array detectors. In someembodiments, the detector includes one or more detector elements of anytype that detects x-rays, including proportional and avalanche detectorsor energy-dispersive elements.

In various embodiments enabling TXRF analysis, use of an x-ray imagingoptic between the detector and the specimen to define a small analysisvolume. A preferred embodiment is to use an x-ray imaging optic with asmall aperture or slit to obtain even smaller analysis volume.Furthermore, by selecting an appropriate E, making use of the widerchoice of x-ray energies afforded by the new x-ray source, thecross-section of element(s) of interest is optimized. Additionally oralternatively, the incident x-ray energy can be purposely selected toreduce x-ray fluorescence signal from other element(s) in the specimenand/or the substrate. Alternatively, a thin film spectra filter toobtain a desired x-ray spectra know in the art can also be used.

In some embodiments that enable XRR analysis, it is preferred that adouble crystal monochromator is added and collimating elements areremoved from the optical train such that the incident beam is focused ata large angles of incidence, including ones that are greater than thecritical angle. This allows the processor to interpret the signals froma position-sensitive detector corresponding to the intensity and angleof reflection of the monochromatic x-rays sensed to determine, based onwell-established methods, various properties of the surface layer(s),including thickness, density, and smoothness.

In some embodiments that enable GIXRD analysis, it is preferred that theradiation source and detector array are positioned so that the arraysenses x-rays that are diffracted from the surface in a vicinity of theBragg angle of the specimen. A motion assembly system may be employed tomove the source, specimen, and detector, singularly or in combination.It is preferred in some embodiments to have a focusing optical trainwith a monochromator to enable high resolution XRD with the incidentx-ray beam exceeding the critical angle of the specimen. In otherembodiments, it is preferred that the optical train is collimating andplaced at a high angle. In the most preferred embodiments, it ispreferred to have a collimating optical train for GIXRD placed at a lowgrazing incidence angle.

In some embodiments that enable GISAXS measurements, the detector ispreferably placed within the specimen plane of the surface to enablemeasurement of scattering as a function of azimuth and the source andoptical train are positioned such that the specimen is illuminated witha collimated beam of incident x-rays at low angles.

Rotating Anode.

While some embodiments of the invention may have a target anode in afixed and static position relative to the optical train, otherembodiments may make use a moving or rotating anode to further dissipatethe heat that is generated within the target generating x-rays underelectron beam bombardment. Rotating anodes have been applied to x-raysources for many decades, and various designs may be well known to thoseskilled in the art.

FIG. 19 illustrates an example of a portion of an embodiment of theinvention employing a rotating anode. In this embodiment, the opticaltrain 3100 is an optical train as may be used in other embodiments ofthe invention, for example as presented in the description of FIG. 14.However, the target 1010 in the embodiment as illustrated comprises acircular cylinder 1019 on a rotating spindle 1033 with an outer coating1018 of thermally conducting material such as diamond or diamond-likecarbon (DLC), and, embedded in this coating/substrate 1018, stripes 2709of material selected for its x-ray generating properties, (such astungsten, gold, molybdenum, copper, or others as described above) havebeen formed. When these x-ray generating stripes 1709 are bombarded byelectrons 111, x-rays 888 are generated, and subsequently collected anddirected by the optical train 3100.

These stripes 2709 may have similar dimensions of depth D into thesubstrate and “length” L along/parallel to the optical axis of theoptical train that are comparable to the dimensions discussed previouslyfor the targets comprising microstructures, such as the microstructures2701-2706 illustrated in FIG. 4 (e.g. a depth on the order ormicrometers, and/or related to the electron penetration depth into theselected x-ray generating material, and “lengths” on a micrometerscale). However, the “width” W of the microstructures stripes 2709 asillustrated in FIG. 18 may be considered to be infinite, or at least aslarge as the circumference of the cylinder, as the “width” of thestructures completely encircles the cylinder.

The illustration of FIG. 18 shows only 4 contiguous microstructure“stripes” 2709 for illustration purposes, however any number of“stripes” may be used. Similarly, the “stripes” may actually comprisebroken lines, and therefore also comprise microstructures of a finite,predetermined “width”. Likewise, other rotating x-ray target patternssuch as a checkerboard structure for the x-ray generating material mayalso be used.

As illustrated, the rotating anode target 1010 comprises a core 1019 ofa solid material, preferably one that is lightweight to minimize theenergy required to spin the target, and is also thermally conducting, todraw heat away from the coating 1018. Materials such as aluminum orcopper may therefore be used. However, this core may also be designed toencompass further means of cooling the target, such as thermoelectriccoolers, water cooling channels, heat pipes, or other known means toaccelerate heat transfer.

Furthermore, although illustrated as a right circular cylinder, othershapes, such as a cone-shaped target, may be used as a structure uponwhich the x-ray generating material is formed. Rotating targetstructures comprising topography steps may also be employed. Likewise,although the x-ray generating material as illustrated has the “stripes”embedded into the coating/substrate, embodiments of the invention inwhich the x-ray generating material is buried into the coating/substrate1018, or is deposited on top of the coating/substrate 1018, may also beeffective. Embodiments with additional coatings may also be used, suchas those in which an additional overcoating of electrically conductingmaterial is employed to provide a path to ground for the electrons, oran additional coating of thermally conducting material to further drawheat away from the x-ray generating material may also be used.

Embodiments of the invention using rotating anodes may be used inconjunction with any of the optical trains and x-ray optical elements,such as x-ray filters and monochromators, as described above as well.

Limitations and Extensions.

With this application, several embodiments of the invention, includingthe best mode contemplated by the inventors, have been disclosed. Itwill be recognized that, while specific embodiments may be presented,elements discussed in detail only for some embodiments may also beapplied to others. Elements in the co-pending Applications incorporatedby reference into this Application, such as, for example, polycapillaryoptics, may also be incorporated into embodiments of the inventiondisclosed herein.

While specific materials, designs, configurations have been set forth todescribe this invention and the preferred embodiments, such descriptionsare not intended to be limiting. Modifications and changes may beapparent to those skilled in the art, and it is intended that thisinvention be limited only by the scope of the appended claims.

We claim:
 1. An x-ray system for analyzing a specimen, comprising: atleast one x-ray source comprising: a plurality of x-ray generatingsub-sources, in which each of the x-ray generating sub-sources has asource size less than 20 micrometers in at least one direction, and isaligned along a predetermined axis so that x-rays generated from atleast two of the plurality of x-ray generating sub-sources accumulatewithin a predetermined divergence angle relative to the predeterminedaxis; and additionally comprising: an x-ray optical system having anoptical axis aligned relative to the predetermined axis, said opticalsystem positioned to collect diverging x-rays accumulated from said atleast two of the plurality of the of x-ray generating sub-sources in thex-ray source and to condition and create an x-ray beam withpredetermined properties; said optical system additionally comprising acentral beam stop positioned to block x-rays propagating parallel to theoptical axis; a means to direct the x-ray beam to be incident with agrazing angle of less than 5 degrees onto an area of a surface of aspecimen; at least one detector which detects the intensity of thex-rays emerging from the specimen and generates electrical signals; anda signal processor to analyze the electrical signals to obtaininformation about at least one of: composition, concentration, quantity,and film thickness.
 2. The x-ray system of claim 1, in which said atleast one detector is positioned to detect x-rays that are diffracted bythe specimen; and additionally comprising: at least one additionaldetector to detect x-rays reflected from the surface of the specimen. 3.The x-ray system of claim 1, in which said predetermined axis and saidoptical axis are coincident.
 4. The x-ray system of claim 1, in whichsaid optical system comprises a total external reflection based x-rayoptic, and said predetermined divergence angle is determined in partbased on the critical angle of said x-ray optic.
 5. The x-ray system ofclaim 1, in which said predetermined divergence angle is determined inpart based on the total length along the optical axis of the x-raygenerating region.
 6. The x-ray system of claim 1, in which said x-raybeam with predetermined properties has the property of being focused toa single spot with a spot size smaller than 300 microns; and in whichthe focused x-ray spot corresponds to a predetermined position on thesurface of the specimen.
 7. An x-ray measurement system, comprising: anx-ray source, comprising: one electron beam emitter; and one anodetarget comprising: a substrate comprising a first selected material, inwhich said substrate has at least one planar surface; and a plurality ofdiscrete structures aligned along a predetermined axis comprising asecond material selected for its x-ray generation properties; in whicheach of the plurality of discrete structures is in thermal contact withthe substrate; and in which at least two of the discrete structures haveat least one dimension parallel to said planar surface of less than 20microns; and additionally comprising: an electron beam control system todirect electrons from the electron beam emitter onto the plurality ofdiscrete structures; an optical train having an optical axis to collectdiverging x-rays generated by said at least two of the plurality ofdiscrete structures in the anode target, and that produces an x-ray beamwith predetermined beam properties; said optical train additionallycomprising a central beam stop positioned to block x-rays propagatingparallel to said optical axis; a mount to hold an object to beinvestigated, positioned such that the x-ray beam will be incident onthe object at a grazing angle of less than 5 degrees; and a detector tomeasure x-rays emerging from the object when x-rays are incident on theobject.
 8. The system of claim 7, in which said detector is positionedto detect x-rays that are diffracted by the specimen; and additionallycomprising: an additional detector to measure the intensity of thex-rays reflected from the object.
 9. The system of claim 7, in whicheach dimension parallel to said at least one planar surface of said atleast two of the discrete structures is less than 50 microns.
 10. Thesystem of claim 7, in which the plurality of discrete structures arearranged in a linear array along said predetermined axis; and theoptical axis of the optical train is also aligned along saidpredetermined axis.
 11. The system of claim 7, in which the firstselected material is selected from the group consisting of: beryllium,diamond, graphite, silicon, boron nitride, silicon carbide, sapphire anddiamond-like carbon.
 12. The system of claim 7, in which the secondmaterial is selected from the group consisting of: aluminum, titanium,vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, gallium,zinc, yttrium, zirconium, molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium, rhodium,palladium, silver, tin, iridium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, cesium,barium, gold, platinum, lead and combinations and alloys thereof. 13.The system of claim 7, additionally comprising: an additional pluralityof discrete structures aligned along said predetermined axis comprisinga third material selected for its x-ray generation properties, in whicheach of the additional plurality of discrete structures is in thermalcontact with the substrate, and in which at least two of the additionaldiscrete structures have at least one dimension parallel to said planarsurface of less than 20 microns.
 14. The system of claim 13, in whichthe third material is selected from the group consisting of: aluminum,titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper,gallium, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium,rhodium, palladium, silver, tin, iridium, tantalum, tungsten, indium,cesium, barium, gold, platinum, lead and combinations and alloysthereof.
 15. The system of claim 7, in which the plurality of discretestructures are arranged such that x-rays generated by a predeterminednumber of the plurality of discrete structures when exposed to anelectron beam from the electron beam emitter are transmitted through apredetermined one of the discrete structure selected from the pluralityof discrete structures.
 16. The system of claim 7, in which the anodetarget is mounted such that the anode target may rotate about an axis.17. The system of claim 16, in which the electron beam control systemthat direct electrons from the electron beam emitter onto the pluralityof discrete structures is adjusted to direct electrons only onto aregion of the anode target comprising a portion of the plurality ofx-ray generating structures that is aligned with the optical train. 18.The system of claim 7, comprising an additional number of electronemitters and, an additional number of anode targets, with each anodetarget corresponding to a single electron emitter, such that eachelectron emitter is aligned to provide an electron beam to bombard thecorresponding anode target to generate x-rays; and the additional numberof anode targets are aligned with each other and with said one anodetarget, such that the positions at which x-rays are generated in saidone anode target and said additional number of anode targets are alignedalong said predetermined axis; and the optical train is also alignedalong said predetermined axis.
 19. The system of claim 7, in which theoptical train comprises at least one axially symmetric x-ray reflectorwith a surface corresponding to a quadric surface.
 20. The system ofclaim 19, in which the quadric surface is selected from the groupconsisting of: a spheroid, an ellipsoid, a paraboloid, a hyperboloid, anelliptic cylinder, a circular cylinder, an elliptic cone, and a circularcone.
 21. The system of claim 7, in which the optical train comprises atype I Wolter x-ray optic.
 22. The system of claim 7, in which thepredetermined x-ray beam properties are those of a collimated x-raybeam.
 23. The system of claim 7, in which the predetermined x-ray beamproperties are those of a focused x-ray beam.
 24. The system of claim 7,in which the detector is a silicon drift detector.
 25. An x-raymeasurement system, comprising: a vacuum chamber; a first windowtransparent to x-rays attached to the wall of the vacuum chamber; and,within the vacuum chamber, one or more electron emitters; and aplurality of x-ray targets; with each target comprising a materialselected for its x-ray generating properties, and in which at least onedimension of said material is less than 20 microns; and in which saidone or more electron emitters and said plurality of x-ray targets arealigned such that bombardment of electrons on said x-ray targetsproduces x-ray sub-sources such that said sub-sources are aligned alongan axis that passes through the first window; and additionallycomprising: at least one x-ray imaging optical element, said x-rayimaging optical element positioned such that x-rays generated by one ofsaid x-ray sub-sources are collected by said x-ray imaging opticalelement and focused onto a position corresponding to one of the otherx-ray sub-sources; said system additionally comprising: an optical trainhaving an optical axis aligned with said axis to collect divergingx-rays generated by said sub-sources and that produces an x-ray beamwith predetermined beam properties; said optical train additionallycomprising a central beam stop positioned to block x-rays propagatingparallel to said optical axis; a mount to hold an object to beinvestigated positioned such that the x-ray beam will be incident on theobject at a grazing angle of less than 5 degrees; and a detector tomeasure x-rays emerging from the object when x-rays are incident on theobject.
 26. The x-ray measurement system of claim 25, in which eachx-ray target comprises a plurality of discrete structures embedded inthe substrate, and said substrate comprises a material with a thermalconductivity greater than 0.1 W m⁻¹° C.⁻¹; and in which said pluralityof discrete structures comprises a material selected for its x-raygenerating properties.
 27. The x-ray measurement system of claim 25, inwhich the x-rays generated by at least one of said x-ray sub-sources arecollected by said at least one x-ray imaging optical element and focusedonto a position corresponding to an adjacent said x-ray sub-source. 28.The x-ray measurement system of claim 27, in which the at least onex-ray imaging optical element comprises a total external reflectionbased x-ray reflectors.
 29. The x-ray measurement system of claim 28, inwhich the at least one x-ray imaging optical element comprises anellipsoidal capillary optic having an ellipsoidal surface, said opticpositioned such that the positions of the foci of the ellipsoidalsurface respectively correspond to the positions of two adjacent saidsub-sources.
 30. The x-ray measurement system of claim 28, in which theat least one x-ray imaging optical element comprises at least oneparaboloidal capillary optic having a paraboloidal surface, said opticpositioned such that the position of the focus of the paraboloidalsurface corresponds to the position of one of said sub-sources.
 31. Anx-ray measurement system, comprising: an x-ray source comprising: atleast two electron beam emitters; and at least one anode targetcomprising: a substrate comprising a first selected material; and atleast two x-ray generating structures comprising a second materialselected for its x-ray generation properties said x-ray generatingstructures positioned on opposite sides of the anode target; an opticaltrain having an optical axis to collect diverging x-rays generated bysaid at least two x-ray generating structures in the anode target, andthat produces a focused x-ray beam; said optical train additionallycomprising a central beam stop positioned to block x-rays propagatingparallel to said optical axis; a mount to hold an object to beinvestigated positioned such that the focused x-ray beam is incident onthe object at a grazing angle of less than 5 degrees; and a detector tomeasure the x-rays reflected from the object.
 32. The x-ray measurementsystem of claim 31, in which the anode target has a first surface, andthe target structures have dimensions of less than 10 microns asmeasured in any direction parallel to the first surface of the anodetarget.
 33. The x-ray measurement system of claim 31, in which the anodetarget has a first surface, and each of the structures comprises aplurality of microstructures, in which each microstructure is embeddedin the first surface of the substrate and has dimensions of less than 10microns as measured in any direction parallel to the first surface ofthe anode target.
 34. The x-ray measurement system of claim 31, in whicheach anode target comprises a plurality of discrete structures embeddedin the substrate, and said substrate comprises a material with a thermalconductivity greater than 0.1 W m⁻¹° C.⁻¹; and in which said pluralityof discrete structures comprises a material selected for its x-raygenerating properties.